Facilitation
of Critical Thinking and Deep Cognitive Processing
by Structured Discussion Board
Activities
Jocelyn Thomas
Department of Psychology
Abstract. Dispositions to behavior and knowledge structures can
be changed by having individuals process information or perform tasks in
contexts unrelated to it "being their own idea" (i.e., they did not
decide to perform the activity themselves).
This presentation describes how having students act as collectors,
discussants, or conduits of information, and then publicly communicating the
products of those activities in a discussion board forum, leads to the
meaningful integration of information into existing knowledge structures and
the use of the new information in ways that promote motivational aspects of
deep learning and critical thinking.
“Teachers open the door…”
--Aristotle
Surface learning and deep learning are two
approaches to processing material that is to be learned (Marton
& Säljö, 1976; Entwistle, 2000; Atherton,
2002). Surface learning is related to
passive processing that lacks reflection, uses low-level meta-cognitive skills
and is extrinsically motivated. By
contrast, deep learning is a product of active processing that is intrinsically
motivated, reflective, and uses higher-level meta-cognitive strategies. Surface learning may result in good memory
for facts and definitions, but limited ability to understand or use them. Deep learning, on the other hand, results in
facility of thought derived from linking newly acquired facts and definitions
into a conceptual framework of existing knowledge. While students who use surface learning may
do well on tests that assess learning through knowledge of facts and
definitions, they may not understand or be able to
apply the memorized and superficially processed information. Again, by contrast, students who use deep
learning are able to understand, apply, and use information learned. Deep and surface learning are hypothesized to
be related to the types of processing strategies that learners apply toward
material they are learning (Entwistle, 2000;
Atherton, 2002). Unlike learning styles, deep and surface learning are not
considered to be stable dispositions of learners. Therefore it is possible for the same student
to use surface and deep approaches when processing material within a course or
across their curriculum. The motivation
of any student to adopt either deep or surface strategies may depend on the
student’s goals or objectives, her conception of what learning is (Entwistle,
2000), or whether the student has insight into when she has understanding of
information she is trying to learn (Entwistle, 2000).
While deep learning is considered superior to
surface learning for producing knowledge stores of usable information, both
deep and surface learning can result in students having “compartmentalized”
stores of knowledge. New learning may
be considered "compartmentalized" when it is isolated within the
knowledge framework because of failures to develop insights about the
applicability or usefulness of the new information, because of failures to establish
connections between existing knowledge and new learning, and because the
motivational push that would lead learners to do these things is not present or
forthcoming. The result is that the
newly acquired knowledge becomes in effect inert—lacking the power or ability
to impact future learning, problem solving, and thinking. Compartmentalization of knowledge and surface
learning can be recognized in students when newly acquired information can be
used under certain circumstances (e.g., to report back on a test) or in certain
contexts (e.g., exclusively in an academic setting), but is not readily
available to influence behavioral dispositions or tendencies already
established or future behaviors. A
familiar example to professors introducing students to electronic resources is
the difficulty encountered in getting students to apply the knowledge and
skills they had acquired about computers in informal settings to the new uses
of computers in academic settings. Many
students may have been familiar with using computers to play games, use on-line
chat rooms, etc., but do not readily transfer the motivational and cognitive
skills used in those activities for structured and unstructured course
activities. Other students may be
motivated to use these tools in the context of their courses, but tend to use
their new knowledge and skills only within the sphere of a certain class or
only for school-related assignments.
Getting students to adopt strategies that result in
higher level processing and learning skills is a challenge for teachers. Simply
telling students to adopt the effective strategies that are consistent with
deep learning is not likely to be instrumental in getting them to invoke those
strategies. Research has shown that
providing individuals with information that their approaches, skills or other
behaviors are not correct or are not productive does little to change their behavior (Franzoi, 1996). The
failure to change cognitions or other behaviors in the presence of new information seems to be unrelated to
individuals having an understanding of
the information they are given or to an expressed motivation or desire
on the part of the individual to have a different kind of behavior. The failure to change could also be due to
the fact that the knowledge that is to be changed is not stored in a form that
allows modification or that the knowledge structures lack connections to
motivational variables (e.g., meta-cognition, disequilibrium, or dissonance)
that could lead to identification of deficiencies in knowledge and
implementation of an effective strategy or approach for learning at deeper
levels.
It is probably not an overstatement to say that
undertaking the task of orienting students toward deep learning that is not
compartmentalized is a difficult challenge for teachers in general. However, with the number of students taking
online classes increasing, there is a need for instructors to reflect on
methods that can be used to foster deep learning in electronic environments and
that are consistent with the spirit of web-based learning (student as
independent learners). One method that
has been used successfully in introductory level psychology classes is to have
students act as collectors, evaluators, or conduits of information and then to
report the results of those activities back to the class through the discussion
forums in Blackboard. The challenges in designing discussion activities that
place students in these roles are:
§
To structure activities that have the
potential to negate student tendencies to adopt surface strategies;
§
To require students to perform activities
that serve to “shape” the mental behaviors that are required of deep learning
(active manipulation of information,
incorporate information into knowledge structures, use of high level
meta-cognition, reflection disequilibrium, evidence collection);
§
To choose topics and activities that have the
effect of creating intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (e.g., disequilibrium,
emotion) that will “force” the student to reflect on the information while it
is being collected or during its evaluation or to struggle with the explanation
or synthesis of information.
To correctly perform their duties as collectors,
evaluators or conduits of information, students must bring to the task
information they already have and then use that information in the context of new
information to expand existing knowledge structures that become the basis for
preparing information for consumption by others. Discussion activities that place students in
the roles of collectors, conduits, or evaluators of information have the potential for incorporating
the following features of deep learning:
--they provide students
with practice with open-ended assignments that increase divergent thinking;
--they provide students
with practice in processing and thinking using real life topics, issues;
--they “require” active
processing on the parts of the students to do them correctly;
--they “require” mental
organization, manipulation, and integration of information;
--they “require”
reflection;
--they provide models that
could be used for emulation or avoidance; surface learners can use the comments
of deep learners as models of cognition;
--they produce either
dissonance or consistency when processing the information obtained from others
(more likely to restructure their own thoughts as a result);
--they provide experience
with writing-for-the-web or help to improve writing-for-the-web skills;
--they provide experience
with organizing thoughts for writing online (which takes place at a more rapid
rate than the write—review and edit--re-write pattern that has been promoted in
composition classes;
-- these activities go on outside the view if the teacher!!!
Three examples of forums that have been used and one
sample response from each forum are shown below:
Teaching Peace Forum:
After reading the “Teaching Peace” lecture, tell
someone you know about the ideas in the lecture and get their reaction. Summarize their comments in four or five
sentences and post it on the peace discussion board in Blackboard. Please note the deadline for completing the assignment.
Sample Response: Teaching Peace
I decided
that talking to one person about this lecture was just not good enough. So I
decided to talk to my family (parents and brother). After discussing this for a
while my brother and I came up with the same basic ideas whereas my parents had
their own as well. My brother and I believe that peace can be achieved through
treating others how you would like to be treated and a concept that was
presented to us through a movie (Pay It Forward)…
Interview a Teacher Forum: Ask the teacher what are
the problems facing children and school performance or related to getting
students to achieve at high levels. You should expect to spend 10-15 minutes
talking to the teacher. Write a brief (maximum 10 sentences) summary of his/her
comments here.
Sample Response: Interview a Teacher
During my interview with Mrs. James, we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of testing. Achievement tests, such as the LEAP, are used to determine whether or not a student has mastered the material needed to pass on to the next grade or graduate from high school...the tests force teachers to cover the material required by state laws, assuring that every child has been at least introduced to the skills required. However, disadvantages of the testing, from Mrs. James's perspective, include the fact that teachers often teach strictly what is on the test and, because some students simply do not test well; sometimes students with good grades fail due to a low test score.
Introduce
Yourself Forum: Tell
someone you know (relative or friend) that you are enrolled in a course in a
Psychology class. Ask them what they think about your taking a course like
this. Post in this discussion forum your assessment of how their opinions about
you taking the course differs from what you think are your reasons for taking
it. Of course, there may not be any differences at all; i.e., what your
relative or friend thinks is the same thing you think about your reason for
taking the course.
Sample Response: Introduce Yourself
I spoke with
two relatives, my mom and a cousin on two different occasions and they both
giggled and said, good, maybe you can help this nutty family of ours jokingly
of course). But I think they probably
really meant it! Seriously, I am thinking of focusing my studies in Psychology.
In each case or instance the responses of students
compare favorably to responses posted when students were simply told to post
comments in unstructured discussion forums.
The sentences and thoughts were more complete, and what was written gave
indication that some thought had been given to what was written. Posting of comments in these forums may have
contributed positively to student outputs in two ways. First, the access to the writing and views of
others in an open forum may have created a social context in which students
could identify models of thinking and
writing that they wished to immolate or that became a basis for their
reflection about themselves and their ideas and writing; a type of constructive
self-evaluation. Second, public posting
of comments probably provided a motivation for students to produce their best
work is hard to create when the assignments are simply turned in to the teacher
for his or her eyes only. Everyone wants
to put his or her best foot forward.
References
Atherton,
J. S. (2002) Learning and Teaching: Deep
and Surface Learning [On-line]:
Enwistle, N. Promoting deep learning
through teaching and assessment.
Paper presented at AAHE conference,
Franzoi,
S. L. (1996) Social
Psychology.
Marton, F. & Säljö, R. (976) On qualitative differences in learning I. Outcome and Process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46:4-11.